You find yourself snowshoeing through the alpine meadows of Strathcona Park. It’s hard work. You’re hot and sweaty- each step feels like it’ll be your last. Sitting down for a moment of rest, you are face to face with a dainty white bird. Startled, the bird effortlessly struts away, floating over the snow with large, feather covered feet. In awe, you whip out your mobile eBird app and search for it. The White-Tailed Ptarmigan, “Lagopus leucura“. The genus, Lagopus, is derived from lagos, meaning “hare,” and pous, “foot,” in reference to the bird’s large, feathered feet in winter. A fitting name for a bird that could easily beat you in a footrace. Your legs are sore. You sip some water. You are now jealous of a bird.

Description

The White-tailed Ptarmigan (Lagopus leucura) is the smallest grouse in North America with a size slightly larger than a California Quail (All About Birds, n.d.). This bird is from the family Phasianidae within the order Galliformes, an order that comprises the modern “game birds” including pheasants, turkeys, partridges, and New World quails (Ramel, 2020). White-tailed Ptarmigan feathers serves as camouflage (cryptic plumage) and color varies throughout the year. In the summer, their plumage is a mottled grey, brown and white. In the winter, they are fully white, allowing them to camouflage in snow. White-tailed Ptarmigan are famous for being “alpine specialists” as they are the only bird in North America that spends their entire life cycle in the alpine tundra of western mountains (All About Birds, n.d.).

Figure 1: Breeding male White-tailed Ptarmigan. Photo by Chris Wood

Figure 2: Nonbreeding winter adult White-tailed Ptarmigan. Photo by Timo Mitzen

Habitat/Distribution

White-Tailed Ptarmigans live year-round in alpine habitats in elevations between 4,000ft to 14,000ft in western North America (Figure 3) (Audubon, 2014, Animalia, n.d.). These grouse participate in altitudinal migration, where they migrate from higher to lower elevation based on seasonal changes (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 3: Distribution of White-tailed Ptarmigan in North America. Black Points show locations of introduced populations. Figure from Birds of the World

At the start of spring, breeding season commences. White-Tailed Ptarmigans move to higher elevations far above the tree line, where they reside in rocky or krummholz (dwarfed wind-deformed trees) dominated areas (Martin et al., 2020). Specifically on Vancouver Island, summer habitat includes alpine heather communities with tree islands of spruce or fir (Martin et al., 2004). These grouse reside at higher altitudes until the end of summer.

As autumn approaches, storms begin. The White-tailed Ptarmigan move downslope in elevation into more sheltered areas, especially into basins where willow and other deciduous shrubs tend to stay above the snow (Audubon, 2014, All About Birds, n.d.). Male White-tailed Ptarmigan over-winter approximately 200 m higher than females, as the males will return sooner to the breeding grounds in the upcoming year (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 4: Male White-tailed Ptarmigan in summer rocky meadow habitat. Photo by David Mendosa

Identification

GENERAL IDENTIFICATION

The White-tailed Ptarmigan is a small plump bird with a short neck, small bill, round wings and large feet (All About Birds, n.d.). Both sexes are similar in size and body shape and can be identified from other grouse species due to their year-round white outer tail feathers (Martin et al., 2020).

The plumage of the White-tailed Ptarmigan is cryptic, meaning that its feathers serve as camouflage. In alpine habitat, the seasonal landscape changes dramatically. In order for the White-tailed Ptarmigan to conceal itself, it changes plumage from white in winter to grayish brown in summer, such that it is molting feathers for 8 months of the year (Martin et al., 2020). Summer plumage varies in pattern and color throughout different ranges to better match local habitat colors (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 5: White-tailed Ptarmigan may vary in summer plumage, but their white outer tail feathers can easily distinguish them from other grouse species. Photos from (respectively) Tim Avery and Alex Lamoreaux

These birds do not have a “conventional” song, but males deliver a “flight scream” of screeching clucks when defending their territory. Both sexes product nasally clucks and rattles (All About Birds, n.d.). Have a listen with the links below!

“Flight scream” of a male White-tailed Ptarmigan. Audio from Julia Whittmann

WINTER IDENTFICATION

Both sexes of White-tailed Ptarmigan are entirely white in the winter with a dark eye and bill (All About Birds, n.d.). They can be distinguished from other white ptarmigan such as the Willow Ptarmigan and Rock Ptarmigan by a few plumage characteristics. Willow Ptarmigan will have black outer tail feathers, while the Rock Ptarmigan has a pronounced red eyebrow with black eyeline (Ebird, n.d., Alaska Department Fish and Game, n.d.). In contrast, White-Tailed Ptarmigan will have no colored feathers.

Figure 6: Rock Ptarmigan (Left) and Willow Ptarmigan (Right) have a few colored winter feathers. Photos from (respectively) Greg Lasley and Scott Grant

Figure 7: The White-Tailed Ptarmigan winter plumage is completely white. Photo from Caroline Lambert

BREEDING IDENTIFICATION

Starting in the spring, the ptarmigan begins to replace their winter plumage with brown/gray patterns (All About Birds, n.d.). Males gain a “necklace” of barred brown/black breast feathers, while females are predominantly brown/black with yellow barring (All About Birds, n.d.). Males gain a bright red eye comb, while females have a smaller, salmon colored eye comb (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 8: Male White-tailed Ptarmigan in breeding plumage. Note red eye comb and barred breast feathers. Photo from Laramie Audubon

Figure 9: Female White-tailed Ptarmigan in breeding plumage. Note predominantly brown markings and small pink eye comb. Photo from Ryan Shaw

Special Alpine Behavioral and Physiological Adaptations

White-tailed Ptarmigan conserve energy through a variety of behavioral and physiological adaptations that result in a generally sedentary lifestyle (Martin et al., 2020). They conventionally walk as opposed to flying to limit energy use, and select microhabitats several degrees warmer than ambient temperature in order to stay within a thermal neutral zone (the zone where little energy is used to control body temperature). In fact, the limit of their thermal neutral zone is 6° C, a very low temperature for birds (Martin et al., 2020). This low temperature likely due to the high insulation properties of the ptarmigan plumage. In addition, the large tarsi (feet) of these birds grow long feathers in the winter, acting as “snowshoes” to allow the bird to easily walk on top of snow (Martin et al., 2020). Check out this quick podcast to hear more about these snowshoes!

Figure 11: Large feathery feet allow this White-tailed Ptarmigan to easily walk on snow. Photo from Audubon

Most impressively, White-tailed Ptarmigan embryos are able to develop normally above 11,800ft in hypoxic conditions where most other bird embryos would be unable to develop due to the lack of oxygen in their tissues (Martin et al., 2020). White-tailed Ptarmigan embryos develop higher hematocrit levels earlier in incubation and have greater oxidative capacity in their heart and leg muscles. These adaptations mean that the embryos have increased oxygen in their blood and in their muscles, allowing for normal development (Martin et al, 2020).

Figure 12: While in the egg, White-tailed Ptarmigan embryos are able to develop normally in low oxygen conditions. Photo from James Hager

Diet/Foraging

This Ptarmigan consumes a diet of buds, leaves, flowers, seeds, and insects (Martin et al., 2020). For much of the year they seek out areas where winds have swept out snow, exposing seeds and buds to consume (All About Birds. n.d.) They forage mostly on the ground, using their small, sharp bill to clip vegetation and store food in their crop to be digested later (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 13: White-tailed Ptarmigan feeding in alpine meadow. Photo from Kerry Hargove

Breeding Behavior and Parental Duties

Male White-tailed Ptarmigan to breeding areas arrive in early spring, where they claim territories (35-70 acres) with calls and aerial displays. Females, which winter at lower elevations than males, arrive in breeding areas in late April-mid May (All About Birds, n.d., Martin et al., 2020). To entice females, males perform courtship displays that involve bowing, pecking at the ground, and dragging the wingtips over the ground (All About Birds, n.d.). The pair bonds for about 3 months each year, with 80% of the ptarmigans re-partnering with a previous year’s mate (All About Birds, n.d.).

Mated pairs stay close together during courtship, and males guard the females until incubation (All About Birds, n.d.). The nest site is always on the ground, where the female makes a shallow depression with her feet, lining it with grass, leaves, and feathers. The interior of the nest averages about 5.9 inches across and about 1.4 inches deep (All About Birds, n.d.). Only females incubate, and males play no role in chick defense or rearing (All About Birds, n.d.)

Figure 14: White-Tailed Ptarmigan nest with eggs. Photo from Mike Davis

Clutch size varies between 2-8 cinnamon-colored speckled eggs, and incubation lasts for 22-25 days (All About Birds, n.d., Martin et al., 2020). Upon hatching, the chicks are completely covered in dense natal down with their eyes open. The chicks and hen leave the nest within 6–12 h after all chicks hatch and do not return (Martin et al., 2020). To protect her brood, the hen elicits specialized warning calls to her chicks at the onslaught of predators like Peregrine falcons or coyotes (Ausmus & Clarke, 2013). Juvenile independence is a gradual process, with broods remaining together until September–October and occasionally through the first winter (Martin et al., 2020).

Figure 15: White-Tailed Ptarmigan chick. Photo from Marv Breece

Conservation Status

The estimated global breeding population is 2 million individuals, and this species is classified as low conservation concern (All About Birds, n.d.)

However, the endemic Vancouver Island White-tailed Ptarmigan subspecies, L. leucurus saxatilis, is on the BC Provincial “Blue List” indicating a species of special concern (Martin & Forbes, 2004). Historically, the distribution is known to range from as far south as Mount Brenton to as north as Tsitika Mountain. The subspecies is vulnerable to population extinction because the birds exist in very low densities in patchy habitats (Martin & Forbes, 2004)

The Vancouver Island White-tailed Ptarmigan habitat has four main threats: increased human recreation, increased pollutants, decrease of habitat from logging, and alpine fragmentation due to climate change (Martin & Forbes, 2004). The British Columbia Ministry of Environment current conservation of L. leucurus saxatilis focuses on implementing “Wildlife Habitat Areas” where L. leucurus saxatilis are known to collect. These areas are 50–250 m wide and aim to create a continuous zone from high elevation habitat to low subalpine habitat in efforts to provide cover and adequate space for these birds (Martin & Forbes, 2004).

Current Research

Effects of Climate Change on Vancouver Island White-Tailed Ptarmigan

The Vancouver Island White-tailed Ptarmigan is currently listed as a species of concern (Martin & Forbes, 2004). Coastal temperate mountains are particularly vulnerable to climate change as they occur at lower elevations compared to interior mountains (Laroque & Smith, 2003). Research has shown that trees and shrubs are now growing at higher elevations on Vancouver Island, leading to a loss of suitable alpine habitat (Jackson et al., 2016). A study by Jackson, M. M., Gergel, S. E., & Martin, K (2015) set out to determine how climate change will affect the total amount, average patch size, and number of patches of suitable habitat for Vancouver Island White-tailed Ptarmigan.

Using field survey data from 1995-1999, the researchers determined the entire range of the ptarmigan alpine habitat in addition to the size of its populations throughout Vancouver Island. To supplement the field survey records, a citizen science program was initiated where hikers reported ptarmigan sightings by mail or email (Figure 17). The researchers used modeling techniques to determine how climate change will alter the size, distribution, and configuration of this birds’ habitat. Specifically, they asked how the total amount, average patch size and number of patches of suitable habitat will change by the 2020’s, 2050’s, and 2080’s due to climate change.

Figure 17: White-tailed Ptarmigan locations on Vancouver Island from the field survey (circles; N = 207) and citizen submissions (triangles; N = 137). Strathcona Park outlined in black (Jackson et al., 2015).

Results from the study show that White-tailed Ptarmigan summer habitat is predicted to decline 27%, 59%, and 74% under a “high” greenhouse gas scenario by the 2020’s, 2050’s, and 2080’s respectively. Habitat patches are predicted to become increasingly fragmented, with a 52–79% reduction in average patch size. These results mean that this ptarmigan is in danger, as their remaining suitable habitat will be increasingly confined. The researchers emphasize the importance of continued monitoring and protection for this specialist species and suggest that White-tailed Ptarmigan should be considered an indicator species for alpine ecosystems in the face of climate change.

Alarm Calling Warns White-tailed Ptarmigan Chicks to Predators

 Ptarmigans are prey to a diverse array of predators including falcons, great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, and coyotes (Ausmus & Clarke, 2013). When a prey animal senses danger, it will alarm call to warn others. The alarm call is urgency based and will encode the degree of danger perceived by the signaler (Macedonia, 1993). The receiver may use this information to determine how quickly an escape tactic must be taken (Macedonia, 1993). A study by Ausmus and Clarke (2013) examined the hypothesis that White-tailed Ptarmigan hens with chicks utter acoustically different alarm calls based on predator category (aerial or terrestrial) and that the chicks would respond differently to the distinct alarm calls.

The researchers recorded hens’ alarm calls in response to predators in Sierra Nevada alpine for two summer seasons. Spectrograms (a visual representation of frequencies over time) were generated from the alarm calls (Huisingh, n.d.). The alarm calls were played-back to the chicks and their responses were recorded.

Figure 18: Spectrogram showing comparison of three notes in an aerial predator threat alarm call and three notes of a terrestrial predator threat alarm call from a White-tailed Ptarmigan hen (Ausmus & Clarke, 2013).

Results from the study show that notes were significantly higher in terrestrial compared to aerial threat alarm calls, supporting that the hens generated different alarm signals for distinct predator types. The playbacks of terrestrial threat calls elicited an upright/alert position by chicks (75 % of responses), while aerial threat calls flatted chicks to the ground (80 % of responses). The escape tactics of these chicks suited the behavior of predator. For example, a ptarmigan chick is less likely to be captured by an aerial predator when the chick remains motionless, as aerial predators rely primarily on visual detection of movement when hunting. (Jones et al., 2007). This study supports the notion that White-tailed Ptarmigan chicks utilize innate responses to alarm calls from hens in order to enhance survivorship.

References

Alaska Department Fish and Game. (n.d.). Small Game Species- Willow Ptarmigan. The Great State of Alaska. Retrieved November 11, from http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=smallgamehunting.willowptarmigan

All About Birds.(n.d.) White-tailed Ptarmigan Identification. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/White-tailed_Ptarmigan/id

Animalia. (n.d.). White-tailed ptarmigan—Facts, Diet, Habitat & Pictures. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://animalia.bio/white-tailed-ptarmigan

Audubon. (2014, November 13). White-tailed Ptarmigan. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/white-tailed-ptarmigan

Ausmus, D. M., & Clarke, J. A. (2014). Mother knows best: Functionally referential alarm calling in white-tailed ptarmigan. Animal Cognition, 17(3), 671–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-013-0698-8

Ebird. (n.d.). Rock Ptarmigan. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://ebird.org/species/rocpta1/

Huisingh, T. (n.d.). What is a Spectrogram? – Signal Analysis. Vibration Research. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://vibrationresearch.com/blog/what-is-a-spectrogram/

Jackson, M. M., Topp, E., Gergel, S. E., Martin, K., Pirotti, F., & Sitzia, T. (2016). Expansion of subalpine woody vegetation over 40 years on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 46(3), 437–443. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2015-0186

Jackson, M. M., Gergel, S. E., & Martin, K. (2015). Effects of Climate Change on Habitat Availability and Configuration for an Endemic Coastal Alpine Bird. PLoS ONE, 10(11), e0142110. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142110

Jones, M. P., Pierce, K. E., & Ward, D. (2007). Avian vision: A review of form and function with special consideration to birds of prey. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine, 16(2), 69-87. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.jepm.2007.03.012

Laroque, C. P., & Smith, D. J. (2003). Radial-growth forecasts for five high-elevation conifer species on Vancouver Island, British Columbi. Forest Ecology and Management., 183(1–3), 313. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-1127(03)00110-5

Macedonia, J. M., & Evans, C. L. (1993). Variation among mammalian alarm call systems and the problem of meaning in animal sounds. Ethology, 93(3), 177. https://doi-org.ezproxy.viu.ca/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1993.tb00988.x

Martin, K. and Forbes, L. (2004). “Vancouver Island” White-Tailed Ptarmigan. Accounts and Measures for Managing Identified Wildlife-British Columbia Ministry of Environment. Retrieved November 11, 2022 from https://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wld/frpa/iwms/documents/Birds/b_vancouverislandwhitetailedptarmigan.pdf

Martin, K., Brown, G. A., & Young, J. R. (2004). The historic and current distribution of the vancouver island white-tailed ptarmigan (lagopus leucurus saxatilis). Journal of Field Ornithology, 75(3), 239-256. https://doi.org/10.1648/0273-8570-75.3.239

Martin, K., L. A. Robb, S. Wilson, and C. E. Braun (2020). White-tailed Ptarmigan (Lagopus leucura), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (P. G. Rodewald, Editor). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA. https://doi.org/10.2173/bow.whtpta1.01

Ramel, G. (2020, January 15). Galliformes: Looking At Partridges, Guinea Fowl & Grouse. Earthlife. Retrieved November 11, 2022, from https://earthlife.net/birds/galliformes