Meet the Aerial Acrobats of the Avian World: Violet-green Swallow

A male Violet-green Swallow perching on a branch. Photo by Daniel Irons.

PART I: INTRODUCTION TO VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOWS

DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION

The Violet-green Swallow (Tachycineta thalassina) is a relatively small passerine that belongs to the swallow family Hirundinidae. As their name would suggest, these beautiful aerial acrobats have a magnificent purple and green plumage. Starting at the back of their head and the superior portion of the wings, T. thalassina has a gleaning iridescent green that travels down the back where it meets and blends into a brilliant violet colour. They have a bright white wrapping around the eye that trails to the cheeks and the birds’ underside down to the rump. When in flight and occasionally seen while perching, white saddlebags are seen (eBird). The brilliant purple and green colours are not well seen in low lighting; they show up as relatively dark coloured birds.

Violet-green Swallow
Male Violet-green Swallow. Photo by David Disher.

Both the females and juveniles show a duller, almost dusty version of the described above; females tend to have a drab brown cap and lack the bright white cheeks (All About Birds). 

Violet-green Swallow
Female Violet-green Swallow. Photo by Joshua D. Vandermeulen.
Violet-green Swallow
Immature Violet-green Swallow in flight. Note the dusty cheeks and cap, as well as the white saddlebags. Photo by Brian Sullivan.

T. thalassina can be identified while in flight by its long wings, short and square tail, small rounded body and head, and tiny bill (All About Birds). Both sexes weigh in at around 0.5 oz (14 g), have a wingspan of approximately 10.6 in (27 cm), and a body length of 4.7 in (12 cm) (All About Birds).

Group of Violet-green Swallows in air. Note the long wings, squared tail, and tiny bill. Photo by Jace Walker.

VOCALIZATIONS

Violet-green Swallows obviously live up to the name when it comes to plumage; however, when it comes to being members of songbird grouping, they lack the elaborate flair that many of its relatives possess. Instead, they remain relatively quiet throughout the day and reserve their calls for the day’s early and pre-dawn hours. Both their songs and calls are relatively simple; a series of chirps and twittering.

Male Violet-green Swallow presumably calling. Perhaps making their usual chee-chee. Photo by Noel Lee.
Song of Violet-green Swallow. Audio by John Neville.
Violet-green Swallow fledgling calling for food. Video from I’m Birding Right Now.

RANGE AND DISTRIBUTION

Violet-green Swallows are distributed throughout the mid-west to the west coast of North America. They can range from as far North as Alaska during the breeding season to as far South as Costa Rica during the non-breeding season (All About Birds).

Violet-green Swallow range map. Photo from All About Birds.

These vibrant coloured birds are known to breed throughout the western United States and Canada. They are quite adaptable birds and are found at sea level and as high an elevation as 11,500 ft (All About Birds). They are known to migrate to Mexico or to Central America, making them a moderate to long-distance migrator. In some cases, Violet-green Swallows are known to stay year round in the central parts of Mexico (All About Birds). Overall, Violet-green Swallows are one of the more adaptable migratory passerine species in their range.

In British Columbia, Violet-green Swallows are most commonly found in the Southern interior and coastal regions; however, there is evidence of them breeding in Northern and central BC. Highest probability of observing these vibrant birds is of course highest in the Southern and coastal regions.

Breeding evidence of Violet-green Swallows in BC. Photo from Bird Atlas.
Probability of Violet-green Swallow observation in BC. Photo from Bird Atlas.

HABITAT

Violet-green Swallows are known to breed in open woodlands, this can include evergreen, deciduous, or a mixed forest (All About Birds). However, they are not limited to open woodlands; they are also frequently found around streams and lakes hunting for insects. Violet-green Swallows nest in cavities, most often in cavities of old trees located within open woodlands. They often nest in cavities and holes found on cliffsides. Due to the adaptability of this species, as well as the ever-growing human-made landscape, Violet-green Swallows are found to nest in man-made nest boxes near settlements (All About Birds). Violet-green Swallows are the swallow species that are most commonly seen in urban areas due to their adaptability (Bird Web).

DIET

Violet-green Swallows are aerial insectivores. They feed almost exclusively on insects that fly (Bird Web). Common insects hunted are wasps, leafhoppers, leaf bugs, ants, bees, and different beetle species.

Male Violet-green Swallow with a fly he caught in his mouth. Photo by Jace Walker.
Two juvenile Violet-green Swallows practicing their hunting eyesight, zoning in on a tasty wasp flying by. Photo by Jace Walker.

They feed, as well as drink almost exclusively while in flight (Sialis), which has lead the to evolve in to incredible aerial acrobats, performing marvelous routines while catching insects in flight.

Collage of Violet-green Swallows in flight positions. Photo by Richard Crossley

NESTING

Violet-green Swallows are known to nest in cavities such as old trees with woodpecker holes, natural rock crevices, nest boxes, and bird houses. When they find a suitable cavity to raise their offspring both the male and female bird go off to gather a variety of nest materials. Such as grass, small twigs, fallen feathers, and roots (All About Birds).

Female Violet-green Swallow investigating potential nest material held up by a hand. Photo by Jace Walker.

Once they gather the materials they create a bowl-like structure with a shallow dip; the size of the nest varies depending on the size of the cavity, however, often measures to approximately 3 inches in diameter (All About Birds). Their nests are often seen as “sloppy” when compared to other songbird species; since they create the nest within cavities there is less pressure to assure strong structural integrity of the nest (Sialis). They pay particular focus on lining the nest with feathers to insulate and cushion the eggs. The process of building the nest can vary in days, it can take anywhere from 3 days up to 20 days.

Male Violet-green Swallow perched at nest cavity. Photo by Laure Wilson Neish.

Violet-green Swallows have a usual clutch size of 4-6 eggs. The eggs are solid white in colour and around 1.6-2.1 cm in length (All About Birds). Often there is only one brood a year, but it is not uncommon for two to occur (Audubon).

Violet-green Swallow nest with eggs
Four Violet-green Swallow eggs in a nest of loosely laid twigs, lined with a cushion of feathers. Photo by Charles Melton.

The incubation period is roughly 13-18 days and is almost entirely done by the female (Audubon). Once the young hatch, both the male and female will fed the nestlings; however, the females often give more parental care to the nestlings than the males.

Juvenile Violet-green Swallow at opening of nest box. Photo from Cosmic Birding.
Male Violet-green Swallow flying away after feeding juvenile in nest box. Photo from Cosmic Birding.
A pair of Violet-green Swallow parents attempting to coax their four young to fly. Video by winterwren3.

Around 23-24 days after hatching, the juveniles are ready to leave the nest. The parents still continue to feed their offspring even after they have left the nest (Audubon).

BEHAVIOUR

Violet-green Swallows are gregarious birds, they are often found in either single species or mixed swallow species flocks (Bird Web). These tiny sky dancers are often found to fly at high altitudes, relative to other swallow species. They will fly low in poor weather conditions, or when foraging over open lakes and streams (Bird Web). Their social behaviour is seen year-round; often seen in large groups when foraging in both breeding and non-breeding grounds (All About Birds).

Fun fact: a group of Swallows can be referred to as a “gulp”, “kettle”, “herd”, “sord”, or “richness” of Swallows!

Mixed-species group of swallows. Photo by Martin Reid.

During the breeding season, depending on available resources and cavity availability Violet-green Swallows may breed in groups or solitarily (All About Birds). Violet-green Swallows are known to be opportunistic when it comes to nesting cavities. There is even an observed account of a pair of Violet-green Swallows that assisted a pair of Western Bluebirds raise their young. They guarded the nest, as well as tended to the nestlings of the bluebirds. Once the bluebirds had fledged, the swallow pair took over the nest site and used it as their own (What Bird).

Violet-green Swallows are most often found in monogamous pairs, and they share parental care once the young hatch from their eggs.

Female Violet-green Swallow feeding her three nestlings. Photo from I’m Birding Right Now.
A female Violet-green Swallow defending her nest box. She doesn’t like when another swallow taps on the box. Video by Colorado1derful.

Swallows are often known for their brilliant aerial routines. Violet-green Swallows definitely live up to the stereotype. However, the wingbeat and flight pattern is slightly different than its relatives. Violet-green Swallows follow a rapid, shallow, and long gliding wingbeat pattern; this creates a more fluttery pattern than other swallows.

Composite of a male Violet-green Swallow flying. Photo from MikeInAlaska.

Their wingbeat pattern can cause their flying to look slightly off balance; nonetheless, they still possess the same elegance and poise.

Violet-green Swallows flying and catching feathers being dropped in air. Video by Jeff Barlow.

Because of the cavity nesting behaviour Violet-green Swallows exhibit, they are often prone to more external parasites within the feathers (All About Birds). As a result, it is not uncommon to see these swallows preening their feathers while resting or perching.

Male Violet-green Swallow preening feathers on a branch. Video from ABC Birds.

CONSERVATION STATUS

Violet-green Swallows are listed in the low risk category at a rating of least concern. Their current global population trend is increasing. Violet-green Swallows have a very wide range of habitat and are very adaptable birds. They have estimated 6,100,000 square kilometers of global range (What Bird). As of right now, there are little signs of species decline, therefore they are currently not on the IUCN Red List (What Bird).

Vibrant male Violet-green Swallow perched on stump. Photo by Nicole Beaulac.

Fun fact: Violet-green Swallows are of least concern on the conservation list, they are important sentinels in determining ecosystem health! They have been used to measure environmental contaminants, assess population structure changes due to increased agriculture, and they have even been used to determine links between physical abnormalities and nuclear radiation (Garlick et al., 2014).

Although the overall population trend for the species is increasing, there are certain areas that are currently facing regional population decline.

Map of USA Violet-green Swallow population decline in the California and Nevada regions. Photo from Nest Watch.

Other than natural habitat decline due to urbanization, another human activity that has lead to slight population declines in Violet-green Swallows is the introduction of non-native bird species. The Violet-green Swallow’s biggest concern would be either the introduction of the House Sparrow or the European Starling (National Geographic). These bird species will destroy nests, destroy eggs, and even kill young. These introduced birds would have had the greatest affects to the Violet-green Swallows in Southern Canada. These species are known to attack not only the Violet-green Swallow, but other swallows species as well. Below are examples of a massacre that happened within a Tree Swallow nest box.

NEST BOXES

With decline of natural resources and natural cavities due to human activity, Violet-green Swallows (ironically) will nest in human made nest boxes. These nest boxes have become increasingly common for bird lovers, there are hundreds of nest box blueprints online so you too can build a next box! There are plenty of websites such as Nest Watch that give great tips on how and where to place a nest box.

A bird house plan for Tree and Violet-green Swallows. Photo from 70 Birds.

The most successful nest boxes will be monitored and made difficult to access by the merciless House Sparrows. Many members of the bird community would agree with the statement that it is much better to have no nest box than have a nest box that raises House Sparrows (Tree Swallow Project).

A responsibility that a nest box owner must take is assuring that nest boxes are cleared out once the young have fledged and the nest has become empty. This gives chances for other birds to use the box.

PART II: THE VAST REPRODUCTIVE ADAPTABILITY OF VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOWS

Violet-green Swallows are known to be very adaptable in the sense of where they choose to nest; they will nest anywhere from a natural tree cavity to an old drain pipe. However, their adaptability is not only limited to where they choose to raise their young.

Interspecific pairing

In a 2017 observation, there was evidence of a male Tree Swallow and female Violet-green Swallow sharing a nest in Ontario. The Tree Swallow had been the original owner of the nest; however, when the Violet-green Swallow arrived it was seen to move into the nest with the Tree Swallow (Armstrong & Johnston, 2018). There was observed copulation attempts by the Tree Swallow and Violet-green Swallow. The male was seen delivering feathers to the female within the nest box, as well as the female delivering feathers to the male (Armstrong & Johnston, 2018). The initial nest attempt was abandoned due to a red squirrel that had previously created a home in the nest box; however, a new nest attempt was made by the same (presumably) two interspecies birds. The second attempt at a nest was unfortunately abandoned as well, yet this nest there laid two abandoned eggs (Armstrong & Johnston, 2018). Violet-green Swallows are not commonly thought to copulate with other species; however, this instance of an interspecific pairing brings up interesting questions regarding the reproductive adaptability of these magnificent birds. An interesting point to note is that Violet-green Swallows are not commonly found in Ontario. Perhaps the mating attempt with the Tree Swallow was a chance to try and increase off spring survival in an unfamiliar breeding ground.

A male Tree Swallow delivering feathers to female Violet-green Swallow in a nest box. Photo by Christine Johnston.
Two eggs laying in the Tree Swallow and Violet-green Swallow’s nest after abandonment. Photo by Ted Armstrong.

Metabolic rate and glucocorticoid hormone response adaptation to periods of stress as a predictor to reproductive output in females and growth time in juveniles

Studies have found that Violet-green Swallows increase specific stress and steroid hormone levels in unfavourable conditions or in periods of increased stress as a way to increase fitness. Glucocorticoids are essential hormone sin regulating metabolic state, especially in response to unprecedented environmental changes.

In rearing female Violet-green Swallows it is seen that females that experience some form of physiological stress will increase glucocorticoid levels to keep up with parental care (Rivers et al, 2016). With the raising of these stress response hormones, female Violet-green Swallows are able to adjust to the physiological stress in order to maintain reproductive output (Rivers et al, 2016). Despite the stress the adult female may face, she is able to continue feeding her nestlings at a rate the is comparable to females unaffected by stress. There is evidence of elevated glucocorticoid levels in the nestlings of the stress affected females, the reason behind this is unstudied. In females, levels of these hormones were measured using both the baseline and the stress-induced hormones (cortisol and corticosterone, “CORT” from hereafter). Studies have found that baseline CORT levels are associated with baseline metabolic investment, more specifically a relation between reproductive performance and metabolic rates (Jimeno et al., 2020). A higher metabolic rate, and higher baseline CORT levels are associated with a higher reproductive output (Jimeno et al., 2020).

On the other side of the nest there are the nestlings, within the nest the growing birds can face stress through sibling-competition in larger broods. There is record of elevated glucocorticoid levels in nestlings in large broods  (Hardt et al., 2018). When there is increased sibling-competition, the nestling Violet-green Swallow adapts to the stress by elevating hormone levels to increase personal fitness. The elevation of glucocorticoids in juvenile birds shows no evidence of stunting growth, however, growth rate is slightly slower (Hardt et al., 2018). When  the reverse was looked at, a very small brood showed no change to hormone levels compared to a normal brood size (Hardt et al., 2018).

Baseline and stressor-induced CORT concentrations of Tree Swallow and Violet-green Swallow juveniles in reduced, normal, and enlarged brood sizes. CORT levels are higher in enlarged broods, while normal and reduced remain similar. Photo from Hardt et al., 2018.

These hormone responses seem to work in a trade-off system, the adult female will increase hormone levels, but lose some mass in order to keep up with reproductive output (Rivers et al, 2016). While the juveniles increase hormone levels to assure that they grow enough to successfully fledge the nest, they extend the growth time within the nest to slightly longer (Hardt et al., 2018). The mechanism behind the hormone changes remains unknown, but they are fascinating adaptions to external stress.

CLOSING REMARKS

Violet-green Swallows are whimsical birds with a keen ability to dart around the sky in magnificent patterns. They show us just how amazing they are at not only dancing in the sky, but through their strong adaptions to ensure reproductive success, their ability to show ecosystem distress, and so much more. I hope that after reading this you have acquired a similar level of love for these exquisite birds.

Male Violet-green Swallow flying in to give you a hug goodbye. Photo by Jack.

References

All About Violet-green Swallows (Tachycineta thalassina). (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.sialis.org/vgswbio.htm

Armstrong, T., Johnston, C. (2018). Observations and interspecific pairing of a Violet-green Swallow and Tree Swallow in northwestern Ontario. Ontario Birds, 36(1), 42-55. http://www.ditsy.ca/library /serve/ob-36-1/index.html?page=43

BC Breeding Bird Atlas. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.birdatlas.bc.ca/accounts/speciesaccount.jsp?lang=en&sp=VGSW

Creating Successful Tree Swallow Nest Box Projects. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.treeswallowprojects.com/creproj.html

First sighting of swallow nestling in one of the nest boxes. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.cosmicbirding.com/bird-blog/first-sighting-of-swallow-nestling-in-one-of-the-nest-boxes

Garlick, N.W., Newberry, & Rivers, J.W. (2014). An Assessment of Nestling Diet Composition in the Violet-green Swallow (Tachycineta thalassina). Northwest Scientific Association, 88(1):49-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3955/046.088.0109

Jimeno, B., Prichard, M.R., Landry, D., Wolf, C., Larkin, B., Cheviron, Z., & Breuner, C. (2020). Metabolic rates predict baseline corticosterone and reproductive output in a free-living passerine. Integrative Organismal Biology. https://doi.org/10.1093/iob/obaa030

Hardt, B. M., Ardia, D. R., Bashaw, M. J., & Rivers, J. W. (2018). Experimental brood enlargement differentially influences the magnitude of the corticosterone stress response in closely related, co‐occurring songbirds. Functional Ecology,32(8), 2008-2018. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.13116

Rivers, J. W., Newberry, G. N., Schwarz, C. J., & Ardia, D. R. (2016). Success despite the stress: Violet‐green swallows increase glucocorticoids and maintain reproductive output despite experimental increases in flight costs. Functional Ecology,31(1), 235-244. doi:10.1111/1365-2435.12719

Violet-green Swallow Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Violet-green_Swallow/lifehistory#

Violet-green Swallow Range Map, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Violet-green_Swallow/maps-range#

Violet-green Swallow. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ebird.org/species/vigswa

Violet-green Swallow. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.birdweb.org/birdweb/bird/violet-green_swallow

Violet-green Swallow. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://identify.whatbird.com/obj/195/_/violet-green_swallow.aspx

Violet-green Swallow. (2019, August 27). Retrieved from https://nestwatch.org/learn/all-about-birdhouses/birds/violet-green-swallow/

Violet-green Swallow. (2020, February 04). Retrieved from https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/violet-green-swallow

10 thoughts on “Meet the Aerial Acrobats of the Avian World: Violet-green Swallow

  1. Hi Julia

    Violet-green Swallows are gorgeous! You wrote such a great blog on them! I really like your formatting too, such as how you made the headers green and violet. It’s the perfect little touch.

    I found it really surprising that the global population is increasing because aerial insectivores are so at risk. Why is the global population increasing and what are they doing differently than other aerial insectivores? I was also wondering about the study on the Tree Swallow and Violet-green Swallow couple (so cute!). Did it mention if the eggs were fertilized or if it is even possible for swallows to create hybrids like that?

    Great job!
    Jenna

    1. Hi Jenna

      Thank you! I’m glad you liked my blog! Answering your question about the overall population increase, it is actually because of the number of nest boxes made and available for them to use. If no nest boxes were being made for them, we would definitely be seeing an overall species decline. And of course, in certain geographic regions, unfortunately, we see a decline in their numbers. As for the Tree Swallow and Violet-green Swallow couple, the article did not mention if the eggs found were fertilized (I don’t believe they had the tools to check if they were or not). From my research, I could not find any accounts of a VGSW X TRES hybrid; however, there was what was thought to be a hybrid of a Violet-green X Cliff Swallow seen in 2000 in the greater Victoria area. If you would like to read more about the hybrid they found, here’s the link https://bcbirds.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/bcbirds_v10_p16_hybrid-violet-green-x-cliff-swallow-saanichton-british-columbia.pdf

      I hope this answered your questions!

      Cheers,
      Julia

  2. Hi Julia

    Thank you for writing such an interesting blog! Violet-green Swallows are damn sexy lookers. I had no idea that they could be so accommodating when it came to nesting, how they patiently waited for their turn at the nest box. And they even helped!

    This seems like a super silly question, but you said part of their diet consists of bees and wasps. Do you know if they safely remove the stinger with their feet? Or do they just send it hope they don’t get stung?

    Awesome blog!

    James

    1. Hi James,
      I’m so happy you liked learning about these beauties. Of my reading of VGSW nothing specifically mentioned if they were to remove the stinger with feet, however, most insectivores have a thick enough layer of feathers that a stinger could not reach the skin layer anyways. VGSW are aerial insectivores, so they would seldom go after large groups of wasps, most likely lone wasps and bees. When wasps and bees are by their lonesome they tend to show less aggression, so that could be another potential reason VGSW just say heck it let’s go and gobble them up. A different aerial insectivore species called the Green Bee-eater also, eat bees (as the name would suggest). The Green Bee-eater crushes the bees while in flight to prevent the bee from being able to deploy the stinger before eating the bee (more on the Green Bee-eater if you are interested https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/green-bee-eater-eats-insects/article32459788.ece https://ebird.org/species/grbeat1 ). Perhaps the VGSW adopted a similar approach to munching on stinging insects. There also is the possibility that they do inevitably get stung on occasion and just deal with it. If that is the case, they have a far stronger than I am because I would simply be crying from it hurting so bad.

      I hope this helped!

      J

  3. Hi Julia,

    Nice blog. I absolutely love this species. I was lucky enough to watch the progress of two nests of VGSW this summer. The adults feel so much smaller in the hand compared to TRES! Much like I remarked in Eden’s blog, VGSW are definitely in my top 6 favourite local swallow species;) I also liked the bit about TRES x VGSW interspecific mating. Hybridizing is an intriguing topic, it’s too bad the eggs never hatched.

    The image of the person holding up nesting material for the female VGSW is pretty neat, I think I’m going to try that this summer. Do you know if that image of the mixed group of swallow species is on the ground or roof of a building? It very much looks like the ground to me, and that strikes me as very odd. I don’t think swallows normally vibe on the ground… but maybe you know more than I do?

    Thanks for thoroughly sharing your love of VGSW!

    Cheers,
    Sam

    1. Hi Sam,

      Thank you for reading my blog. I hope someday I get a chance to hold one of these little guys in my hand. To answer your question about that photo of the mixed flock of swallows, the photo is taken on the ground. The photographer said that the swallows would all be flying around and then all of a sudden they would all land on the ground to rest. The pictures were taken at Benbrook Lake, which is a fairly large reservoir in Texas. There are more pictures of multiple swallows hanging out on the ground near the shore of the lake here, http://www.martinreid.com/Main%20website/swallows.html . I believe that the huge flock of swallows were perhaps migrating together since the photos were taken in early October. I couldn’t find much information on swallows on the ground, but there was one source for European swallow species stating that during migration they sometimes will rest in huge flocks in reed beds, so perhaps there is a similar behaviour happening in that picture.

      Hope this helps,
      Julia

  4. Hey Julia,

    Great blog!

    It was super cool learning more about the Violet-Green swallow. Their plumage is beautiful and I hope that I will get to see one in the wild one day! I found it interesting that they are known to stay year-round in Mexico. I was wondering if you know how much of the population stays in one place year-round rather than migrating? Also, do you what the factors determining if they migrate would be?

    Thanks for sharing,

    Tyler

    1. Hi Tyler,

      Great questions. I could not find exact numbers as to how many choose to stay year-round, however, their reasoning behind staying rather than migrating every year is probably due to the fact that in warmer climates there are insects year-round. If there is a food source and they have a place they can make a nest, then they are probably just being conservative of their energy and using the resources actively available for them.

      Thanks for reading!
      J

  5. Hi Julia,

    Very interesting blog post! It’s always fun to learn the nuances of all these different species! I found the part about the pair of violet-green swallows aiding a pair of western bluebirds with their young fascinating! Have you heard of any other times where two separate pairs of birds from different species raise the same young? I also found it interesting that the glucocorticoid hormone response resulted in increased growth for young birds, I would have thought for sure that that would cause some developmental issues.

    Thanks for the great blog post!
    Adam

    1. Hi Adam,

      VGSW sure are interesting little guys, aren’t they?! Great question, I did some research and I could not find exact instances similar to that of the VGSW helping raise the Bluebird species at their own will, but there are instances of birds such as the Chipping Sparrow who will feed the young of the Brown-headed Cowbird. This is a different situation in the sense that the Chipping Sparrow did not ever willfully sign up to raise the Brown-headed Cowbird nestling. There are other examples of brood parasitism with other species, but the VGSW seems to just be strange little birds that just like to hang out and make friends with everyone it seems!

      Cheers,
      Julia

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